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Kyrgyzstan (pronounced /ˈkɻ̩gɪztɑn/ (AmE) or /'kɝgəztan/ (BrE), Kyrgyz: Кыргызстан [qɯrʀɯzˈstɑn]; Russian: Киргизия [kirˈgizija] or Киргизстан [ˈkirgistan] or Кыргызстан [ˈkˠɨrgˠɨz.stan], variously transliterated, also Kirgizia or Kirghizia), officially the Kyrgyz Republic, is a country in Central Asia. Landlocked and mountainous, it is bordered by Kazakhstan to the north, Uzbekistan to the west, Tajikistan to the southwest and China to the east.
History
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Early history
According to recent historical findings, Kyrgyz history dates back to 201 BC. The early Kyrgyz lived in the upper Yenisey River valley, central Siberia. The discovery of the Pazyryk and Tashtyk cultures
show them as a blend of Turkic nomadic tribes. Chinese and Muslim
sources of the 7th–12th centuries AD describe the Kyrgyz as red-haired,
in addition, blond-haired with a fair complexion and green or blue eyes.
The descent of the Kyrgyz from the indigenous Siberian population is confirmed on the other hand by recent genetic studies.[3] Remarkably, 63% of the modern Kyrgyz men share Haplogroup R1a1 (Y-DNA) with Tajiks (64%), Ukrainians (54%), Poles (56%) and even Icelanders (25%). Haplogroup R1a1 (Y-DNA) is believed to be a marker of the Proto-Indo-European language speakers.
The Kyrgyz state reached its greatest expansion after defeating the Uyghur Khanate in 840 A.D. Then Kyrgyz quickly moved as far as the Tian Shan range and maintained their dominance over this territory for about 200 years. In the 12th century, however, the Kyrgyz domination had shrunk to the Altay Range and the Sayan Mountains as a result of the rising Mongol expansion. With the rise of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, the Kyrgyz migrated south.
Russian influence
In the early 19th century, the southern part of what is today Kyrgyzstan came under the control of the Khanate of Kokand. The territory, then known in Russian as "Kirgizia", was formally incorporated into the Russian Empire
in 1876. The Russian takeover was met with numerous revolts against
tsarist authority, and many of the Kyrgyz opted to move to the Pamirs and Afghanistan. In addition, the suppression of the 1916 rebellion in Central Asia caused many Kyrgyz to migrate to China.
Since many ethnic groups in the region were (and still are) split
between neighbouring states, at a time when borders were more porous
and less regulated, it was common to move back and forth over the
mountains, depending on where life was perceived as better; this might
mean better rains for pasture or better government after oppression.
Soviet era
Displays in the former Lenin Museum (now part of the National Museum) celebrated Kyrgyzstan's membership in the Soviet Union
Soviet power was initially established in the region in 1919 and the Kara-Kyrgyz Autonomous Oblast was created within the Russian SFSR
(the term Kara-Kirghiz was used until the mid-1920s by the Russians to
distinguish them from the Kazakhs, who were also referred to as
Kirghiz). On December 5, 1936, the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic was established as a full republic of the Soviet Union.
During the 1920s, Kyrgyzstan developed considerably in cultural, educational, and social life. Literacy
was greatly improved, and a standard literary language was introduced
by imposing Russian on the populace. Economic and social development
also was notable. Many aspects of the Kyrgyz national culture were
retained despite the suppression of nationalist activity under Stalin, and, therefore, tensions with the all-Union authorities were constant.
The early years of glasnost
had little effect on the political climate in Kyrgyzstan. However, the
Republic's press was permitted to adopt a more liberal stance and to
establish a new publication, Literaturny Kirghizstan, by the
Union of Writers. Unofficial political groups were forbidden, but
several groups that emerged in 1989 to deal with the acute housing
crisis were permitted to function.
In June 1990, ethnic tensions between Uzbeks and Kyrgyz surfaced in the Osh Oblast,
where Uzbeks form a majority of the population. Violent confrontations
ensued, and a state of emergency and curfew were introduced. Order was
not restored until August 1990.[citation needed]
The early 1990s brought considerable change to Kyrgyzstan. By then,
the Kyrgyzstan Democratic Movement (KDM) had developed into a
significant political force with support in Parliament. In an upset
victory, Askar Akayev,
the liberal President of the Kyrgyz Academy of Sciences, was elected to
the Presidency in October 1990. The following January, Akayev
introduced new government structures and appointed a new government
composed mainly of younger, reform-oriented politicians.
In December 1990, the Supreme Soviet voted to change the republic's
name to the Republic of Kyrgyzstan. (In 1993, it became the Kyrgyz
Republic.) In February 1991, the name of the capital, Frunze, was
changed back to its prerevolutionary name of Bishkek.
Despite these aesthetic moves toward independence, economic realities
seemed to work against secession from the Soviet Union. In a referendum
on the preservation of the Soviet Union in March 1991, 88.7% of the
voters approved the proposal to retain the Soviet Union as a "renewed
federation."
On August 19, 1991, when the State Emergency Committee assumed power in Moscow,
there was an attempt to depose Akayev in Kyrgyzstan. After the coup
collapsed the following week, Akayev and Vice President German
Kuznetsov announced their resignations from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
(CPSU), and the entire bureau and secretariat resigned. This was
followed by the Supreme Soviet vote declaring independence from the
Soviet Union on August 31, 1991.
Independence
In October 1991, Akayev ran unopposed and was elected president of
the new independent Republic by direct ballot, receiving 95% of the
votes cast. Together with the representatives of seven other Republics
that same month, he signed the Treaty of the New Economic Community.
Finally, on December 21, 1991, Kyrgyzstan joined with the other four Central Asian Republics to formally enter the new Commonwealth of Independent States. In 1992, Kyrgyzstan joined the UN and the CSCE.
The "Tulip Revolution," after the parliamentary elections in March 2005, forced President Akayev's resignation on April 4, 2005. Opposition leaders formed a coalition and a new government was formed under President Kurmanbek Bakiyev and Prime Minister Feliks Kulov. The nation's capital was also looted during the protests.
Political stability appears to be elusive, however, as various groups and factions allegedly linked to organized crime
are jockeying for power. Three of the 75 members of Parliament elected
in March 2005 were assassinated, and another member was assassinated on
10 May 2006
shortly after winning his murdered brother's seat in a by-election. All
four are reputed to have been directly involved in major illegal
business ventures.
Current concerns in Kyrgyzstan include: privatization of state-owned
enterprises, expansion of democracy and political freedoms,
inter-ethnic relations, and terrorism.
Politics
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The 1993 constitution defines the form of government as a democratic
republic. The executive branch includes a president and prime minister.
The parliament currently is unicameral. The judicial branch comprises a
Supreme Court, a Constitutional Court, local courts, and a Chief
Prosecutor.
In March 2002, in the southern district of Aksy,
five people protesting the arbitrary arrest of an opposition politician
were shot dead by police, sparking nationwide protests. President
Akayev initiated a constitutional reform process which initially
included the participation of a broad range of government, civil, and
social representatives in an open dialogue, leading to a February 2003
referendum marred by voting irregularities. The amendments to the
constitution approved by the referendum resulted in stronger control by
the president and weakened the parliament and the Constitutional Court.
Parliamentary elections for a new, 75-seat unicameral legislature were
held on February 27 and March 13, 2005, but were widely viewed as
corrupt. The subsequent protests led to a bloodless coup on March 24, after which Akayev fled the country and was replaced by acting president Kurmanbek Bakiyev. (see: Tulip Revolution).
Interim government leaders are developing a new governing structure
for the country and working to resolve outstanding constitutional
issues. On July 10, 2005, acting president Bakiyev won the presidential election in a landslide, with 88.9% of the vote, and was inaugurated on 14 August.
However, initial public support for the new administration
substantially declined in subsequent months as a result of its apparent
inability to solve the corruption problems that have plagued the
country since its independence from the Soviet Union, along with the
murders of several members of parliament. Largescale protests against
president Bakiyev took place in Bishkek in April and November of 2006,
with opposition leaders accusing the president of failing to live up to
his election promises to reform the country's constitution and transfer
many of his presidential powers to parliament. [4]
Provinces and districts
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Kyrgyzstan is divided into seven provinces (sing. oblast (область), pl. oblasttar (областтар)) administered by appointed governors. The capital, Bishkek, and the second large city Osh are administratively the independent cities (shaar) with a status equal to a province.
The provinces, and independent cities, are as follows:
- Bishkek (city)
- Batken
- Chui
- Jalal-Abad
- Naryn
- Osh (province)
- Talas
- Issyk-Kul
- Osh (city)
Each province comprises a number of districts (raions), administered by government-appointed officials (akim). Rural communities (ayıl ökmötü), consisting of up to twenty small settlements, have their own elected mayors and councils.
Geography
Ala Archa gorge near Bishkek
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Kyrgyzstan is a landlocked country in Central Asia, bordering Kazakhstan, China, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The mountainous region of the Tian Shan covers over 80% of the country (Kyrgyzstan is occasionally referred to as "the Switzerland of Central Asia", as a result [5]), with the remainder made up of valleys and basins. Lake Issyk-Kul in the north-western Tian Shan is the largest lake in Kyrgyzstan and the second largest mountain lake in the world after Titicaca. The highest peaks are in the Kakshaal-Too range, forming the Chinese border. Peak Jengish Chokusu,
at 24,400 feet (7,439 m), is the highest point and is considered by
geologists (though not mountaineers) to be the northernmost 23,000 foot
(7,000 m) peak in the world. Heavy snowfall in winter leads to spring
floods which often cause serious damage downstream. The runoff from the
mountains is also used for hydro-electricity.
The climate varies regionally. The south-western Fergana Valley is subtropical and extremely hot in summer, with temperatures reaching 40°C (104°F.) The northern foothills are temperate and the Tian Shan varies from dry continental to polar climate,
depending on elevation. In the coldest areas temperatures are sub-zero
for around 40 days in winter, and even some desert areas experience
constant snowfall in this period.
Kyrgyzstan has significant deposits of metals including gold and rare earth metals.
Due to the country's predominantly mountainous terrain, less than 8% of
the land is cultivated, and this is concentrated in the northern
lowlands and the fringes of the Fergana Valley.
Bishkek in the north is
the capital and largest city, with approximately 900,000 inhabitants
(as of 2005). The second city is the ancient town of Osh, located in the Fergana Valley near the border with Uzbekistan. The principal river is the Naryn, flowing west through the Fergana Valley into Uzbekistan, where
Classical
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